U.S. English Foundation Research

RUSSIA

Language Research

6. Language in everyday life: The use of language in everyday life, e.g. education, broadcasting, and other

The Russian language has dominated cultural and official life throughout the history of the nation, regardless of the presence of other ethnic groups. Russification campaigns during both the tsarist and communist eras suppressed the languages and cultures of all minorities. Although the Soviet-era Constitutions affirmed the equality of all languages with Russian for all purposes, in fact, language was a powerful tool of Soviet nationality policy. The governments of both the Soviet Union and the Russian Federation have used the Russian language as a means of promoting unity among the country's nationalities, as well as to provide access to literary and scientific materials not available in minority languages.

Beginning in 1938, the Russian language was a compulsory subject in the primary and secondary schools of all regions. In schools where an indigenous language was used alongside Russian, courses in science and mathematics were taught in Russian only. Many university courses were available only in Russian, and Russian was the language of public administration in all jurisdictions in all fifteen Soviet Republics. Nevertheless, the minority peoples of the Russian Republic, as well as the peoples of the other fourteen Soviet Republics, continued to consider their own language as the primary one and the general level of Russian fluency was low. In the mid-1990s, Russian remained the sole language of public administration, the armed forces and of the scientific and technical communities. Russian schools granted diplomas in only two minority languages, Bashkir and Tatar, and higher education was conducted almost entirely in Russian.

Currently, languages of minorities are studied at primary and secondary schools in all the autonomous republics irrespective of the status of that language. The teaching of the national languages is conducted in the Republics of the Russian Federation, as well as in other regions of Russia, in the localities with a large number of minorities. There are no legal restrictions for that. The national system of state education is financed from both federal and local budgets.

A new form of education is being introduced into practice. It is the organizing of the national cultural and educational centers, which are financed by the state. There are seven such centers in Moscow and forty educational institutions teaching the national languages and culture in all. 

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Updated (July 2002)

Sámi Radio, broadcasting already in Norway, Sweden and Finland, has established a new radio station in the Kola Peninsula in Russia. It means that Sámi Radio broadcasts in the Sámi language in all countries with a native Sámi population.

The previous Russian Sámi radio station had to be closed in the year 2000 due to economic problems. The present project is financed by various organizations from Norway, Sweden and Finland and the local Russian TV station “Murman,” is also willing to participate.

The area covered by the Sámi Radio should include Lovozero and Revda, the largest oblast (region) in the Kola Peninsula.

The project will last for three years and after this period it should be able to stand on its own feet. Several journalists will be educated at the Sámi High School in Kautokeini (Norway) to work for the new radio station and they will study topics that might be relevant for Sámi Radio in the future.

There will also be a course in the North Sámi language especially for Russian participants to strengthen the ties between the Sámi population in the Kola Peninsula and the Sámis in the Nordic countries.

The Sámi population in the Kola Peninsula welcomes the project and hopes that it will contribute to strengthen the Sámi culture and language in the Peninsula. Through regular exchange of programs between the stations of Sámi Radio, the Sámi culture of Russia will become more widely known in the Nordic countries, while the Sámi culture of the Nordic countries will be presented in the Peninsula as well.

Contrary to the popular belief, there is no such thing as a single Sámi language. The differences between the varieties of Sámi are far greater than the differences between dialects and thus one should talk of the Sámi languages. The largest and most important of these languages is North Sámi, which is spoken by the majority of the Sámi population in Norway, Sweden and Finland. Apart from North Sámi there are many smaller languages, such as Ume Sámi, South Sámi, Lule Sámi and Pite Sámi in Norway and Sweden and Inari Sámi and Skolt Sámi in Finland. Most of these languages are very small and threatened by extinction.

In the Kola Peninsula a number of the Sámi languages are spoken, such as Kildin Sámi, Skolt Sámi and Akkala Sámi. The largest of these is Kildin Sámi, which is spoken by approximately 1,000 speakers. This contrasts with North Sámi, which is spoken by approximately 25,000 speakers. The total number of Sámi speakers is estimated to be around 50,000.

Source: Eurolang, http://www.eurolang.net/, Helsinki, July 9, 2002, by Jonas Holmqvist 

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Updated (September 2002)

KARELIAN LANGUAGE

Following the introduction of Karelian writing, the Karelian language began to gain ground. In 1988, it began to be taught in three rural primary schools (1st through 3rd grade). By 2000, as many as 52 schools, rural and urban, offered courses in Karelian (1st – 4th grade). Subsequent grades chose Karelian as an optional subject. It was also included in the training program for nursery schools and taught in three institutions of higher education and a teachers' training junior college.

Currently textbooks are available for teaching Karelian in the first four grades. There are books for children and some books written by Karelian writers (mostly poetry, around 40 titles). The language has expanded to the media as well. Three newspapers, a children's magazine and a number of radio and TV programs are published and broadcast in Karelian.

Source: World Congress on Language Policies, Barcelona, April 16-20, 2002, “Effective Language Politics: The Case of Karelian,” by T.B. Kryuchkova (Russia),

http://www.linguapax.org/congres/taller/taller3/Krjuchkova.html

KALMYK LANGUAGE

At present the first priority in Kalmykia is given to harmonization of social functions of two state languages. Although juridically equal, the state languages of Kalmykia are not equal functionally. The Russian language is used in all spheres of social activities (business, education and science) while the Kalmyk language functions in the spheres connected with national culture (education, mass-media, theatre, belles-lettres, folklore). It is partially used in the state administration and socio-political activities of the Republic.

One of the priorities of language policy in Kalmykia is to pass the language to younger generations. The Ministry of Education makes every effort to act in accordance with the constitutional right of every child to learn the mother tongue. In 1990s, there has started the process of restoration of national educational system. The last Kalmyk classes were closed at the beginning of 60s. In 1993, after a thirty-year pause, 67 new Kalmyk classes and 83 kindergarten groups were opened. In 2001, there were 153 Kalmyk classes and 84 kindergarten groups. Schools with an ethno-cultural component in their curriculum provide conditions for children to study their mother tongue and thus grow up in a connection with their culture. In technical and vocational colleges there are two classes of Kalmyk a week but the students have to cope with a shortage of teaching materials.

Pedagogical cadres for national schools are trained at the Kalmyk State University and the Kalmyk Pedagogical College that prepare teachers for elementary schools and specialists in pre-school pedagogy and psychology.

The Government of the Republic also established the Kalmyk Terminology Committee, whose main activity is to form, discuss and approve new Kalmyk terms in the field of politics, economics, science and etc. The Committee works in cooperation with the native speakers, taking into consideration their comments. A list of terms, approved by the Committee, is published in the local press.

In terms of culture, the Kalmyk language is widely used in the performances of the Kalmyk national drama theatre, Philharmonic, amateur art, folklore ensembles and groups. Traditional holidays and customs have been revived.

According to the Law on Languages, Kalmyk and Russian are used in the government administration and legislation and are involved in the process of law preparation. The Constitution and all governmental degrees, laws and resolutions are published in the local periodicals in Kalmyk and Russian. Both state languages are used in official documents, such as passports, certificates of birth and marriage and general certificate of education.

Mass media also contribute to language revitalization by popularization of the Kalmyk language on TV, radio, and in newspapers. The following periodicals are issued in the Kalmyk language: a newspaper “Khalmg yunn” (Kalmyk Truth); a literary magazine “Teegin gerl” (Light in the Steppe); a magazine for children “Bair” (Happiness) and an educational magazine “Gegyarlt” (Education).

Fifty percent of the local TV and radio broadcasting time is in Russian and 50 percent in Kalmyk.

Source: World Congress on Language Policies, Barcelona, April 16-20, 2002, “Language Policy in the Republic of Kalmykia,” by A.N. Bitkeeva, Institute of Linguistics of Russian Academy of Sciences, Research Center on Ethnic and Language Relations, Moscow, Russia,

http://www.linguapax.org/congres/taller/taller3/Bitkeeva.html 

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Updated (March 2004)

THE KABARDINIAN AND BALKAR LANGUAGES THREATENED

Since January 1, 2004, the republican television channel has ceased all programs in the Kabardin and Balkar languages on economics, culture, language, history, and literature, as well as concerts and theatre performances. All what remains is a 20-minute program broadcast once per week for both languages. This unexpected step has initiated a heated debate so that the programs were restored.

A veteran television journalist, Mukhab Bzhenikov, wrote an article with the title “She has become a stepmother”, published in the newspaper “Adygskoe Slovo” on February 14. The Russian television channel VGRTK was accused there of being the stepmother because it mistreated its “daughter” Kabardino-Balkaria's local television company.

According to the 2002 Census, 950,000 people live in Kabardino-Balkaria of whom 500,000 are Kabardinians and 120,000 are Balkars. The majority of them are bilingual, speaking both Russian and their mother tongue. The use of the two indigenous languages is widespread.

The Head of the Nationalities Department of the Republic's Ministry of Culture, Zaur Mambetov, criticized the suspension of native-language broadcasting as a violation of the constitutional rights of citizens and international conventions.

The leaders of the local nationalist movements (Khase for the Kabardinians and Tere for the Balkars) which have been banned by the authorities and currently operate mostly underground, have also denounced the move as part of a systematic campaign to suppress national cultures.

According to a deputy head of the Khase movement, Ibrahim Yaganov, that was clear and well-planned process. Firstly the national movement was banned and “an ethnicity box” in the passports disappeared, then classes using the native languages were closed and all traces of sovereignty from the Constitution of Kabardino-Balkaria were removed and finally broadcasting was stopped. One can expect that next the autonomous republic will be abolished altogether.

Kabardino-Balkarian television has been a part of the Russian National Television & Radio Company, VGRTK, for several years. On one hand it boosted the broadcasting facilities and equipment of the local channel but on the other hand it also deprived it of its editorial independence.

VGRTK warned Kabardino-Balkar television three years ago that its programs will be cut unless the local channel will not find some way to pay for itself either by securing local government support or, alternatively, by starting its own independent channel. However, local television officials have done nothing to deal with this problem. In neighboring North Ossetia, where they also knew this was coming, they shifted to another channel thus keeping all their local programming intact.

In 2003, the entire budget of the television was 22 million roubles (around USD 700,000) and this year it is nine million roubles less. Another government-supported television channel, NOTR, which covers elections and other official events but broadcasts only in Russian, received five to six million roubles from the local budget.

Some people claim that Kabardinian and Balkar are the republic's national languages only formally. There is only one native-language theatre, one newspaper and literary journal, and a few TV and radio shows. To stop TV broadcasting means that these languages will be deprived of their most popular outlet.

The authorities probably will not try to solve this problem, as there are no organized groups in the society who can pressure the government to take action.

Source: Minelres News, http://lists.delfi.lv/pipermail/minelres/2004-February/003220.html, IWPR'S Caucasus Reporting Service, No. 219, February 20, 2004 by Valery Khatazhukov, a managing director of the Kabardino-Balkar Human Rights Advocacy Center in Nalchik

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Updated (September 2004)

THE MEDIA AND EDUCATION IN THE TOUVINIAN LANGUAGE

Currently eight newspapers with circulation of 14,000-25,000 copies are published in Touvinian, compared to two newspapers published in 1975 (circulation of 7,781 copies).

In 1995-1996, 61 percent of Touvinian children were taught in their mother tongue at schools and 22 percent learnt it as a subject. Nowadays Touvinian is the language of instruction in 80 percent of elementary and high schools in the Republic. Ninety-seven percent of urban and ninety-nine percent of village children under the age of fifteen consider Touvinian to be their mother tongue.

THE KHAKASS LANGUAGE — EDUCATION (see also Background notes, September 2004)

Language shift usually begins in the cities and a poor level of native language abilities among urban children serves as its indicator. In 1978, 17 percent of the urban schoolchildren were fluent in their mother tongue, 43 percent reported to know Russian better and 40 percent did not speak the Khakass language at all¹.

During the last decade opportunities to learn the Khakass language at schools has improved. In 2002, for example, 35 percent of all Khakass schoolchildren from municipal schools in Abakan (the capital of the Republic) learnt their native language as a subject while before the 90s, Khakass was not taught in any municipal school. Thirty-one percent of these children reported that they understand the language well and 60 percent had limited understanding abilities. On the other hand, 22 percent were fluent speakers and 63 percent had only limited speaking abilities.

However, despite the efforts of schools, regular everyday use of the language at home among the adults and children in Abakan remains rather rare. As for the children, just 2 percent use only the Khakass language in communication with their parents, 22 percent with their grandparents and no one reported to use it among friends. More schoolchildren reported to use both Russian and Khakass: 59 percent with parents, 60 percent with grandparents and 18 percent with friends. Sixty percent watch national TV programs and 30 percent read newspapers in both languages.

Russian has become the common language in the families and among friends. At home, when asked in Khakass, children are used to answer in Russian and some parents and grandparents even deliberately speak Russian to their children to ensure their better academic success in school.

After changes in the language policy and rise in self-esteem among the Khakass people it is difficult to start using Khakass again as many do not speak it anymore. According to the Language Law, it is not compulsory to learn the language and thus only some schools organize its teaching.

The situation, however, is much better in some villages of the Askiz, Tashtyp and Beja District where a percentage of the Khakass population is higher. According to the 2001 survey, 100 percent of school graduates from Nizhniaja Tioja (the Askiz District) were fluent in their mother tongue and they used it in their everyday life with their parents and grandparents. In general the Khakass language was studied by 69 percent of all Khakass children in 114 out of 275 schools of the Republic².

Recent studies show that the overwhelming majority of schoolchildren and students from Abakan and the other districts of the Republic have a positive emotional attitude to their mother tongue, considering it as a part of their ethno-cultural identity, and they expressed readiness to participate in its preservation. However, it is clear that schools alone are not able to save the language if it is not absorbed at home in preschool age. Maintenance of a language is not the same as its natural intergenerational passing in families.

Despite the difference between the Khakass and Touvinian model it is evident that the new Russian Language Law gives more opportunities to safeguard national languages but its implementation depends both on political and sociolinguistic conditions in the regions.

Source: World Congress on Language Policies, Barcelona, 16-20/04/2002, "Language Law in Russia: Models of Implementation in Tyva and Khakassia", by Tamara Borgoiakova, Khakass State University, Russia, (tborg@khakasnet.ru), http://www.linguapax.org/congres/taller/taller1/Borgoyakova.html

¹ (Krivonogov, 1984)

² At elementary level it was taught at 17 national schools with 600 children (Kyzlasova, 2000).

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Updated (November 2007)

URGENT ACTION IS NEEDED TO REVERSE THE ONGOING DECLINE IN THE USE OF MINORITY LANGUAGES IN DAGESTAN 

Participants at a roundtable discussion, which took place in July 2007 in Makhachkala, expressed concern that Russian is fast becoming the sole state language in Dagestan. They called on President Mukhu Aliyev to take urgent measures to reverse the ongoing decline in the use of smaller languages, some of which may otherwise become extinct within 10-15 years.

Daghestan has 14 titular nationalities who speak different languages: Avars, Aghuls, Azerbaijanis, Dargins, Kumyks, Laks, Lezgins, Nogais, Rutuls, Tabasarans, Tats, Tsakhurs, Chechens, and Russians. The State Constitution places Russian on an equal footing with 13 other minority languages (all have state language status). Given that these languages are not mutually comprehensible or even inter-related, Russian serves as the lingua franca between members of different ethnic groups and it is the language taught even at kindergarten level.

The problem of minority languages in Dagestan today has its roots in the past. The Soviet Union took a dual approach to the teaching of minority languages – on the one hand, by promoting the creation of literary languages for small ethnic groups and encouraging writers to use their native language in their works. On the other hand, the Soviet authorities implemented a policy of requiring non-Russian speakers to become fluent in Russian; the mastery of the Russian language became a key to career advancement.

As a result, at that time many parents enrolled their children to schools with Russian as the language of instruction rather than to schools with their native languages. Yet, whether as a result of the emphasis on preserving minority languages, or as a conscious statement of national identity, many non-Russians still identified the language of their nationality as their native language. For instance, data from the 1979 Soviet census showed that more than 90 percent of Dagestan's 10 largest indigenous groups designated the language of the respective group as their native language.

After the Soviet system collapsed, the situation of minority languages in multiethnic Dagestan has changed – generous state subsidies for development and teaching of small languages have been cut and Dagestan was forced to revise spending priorities, with education getting short shrift. This has led to chronic shortages of school textbooks in languages other than Russian.

The Avars, the largest ethnic group in Dagestan (almost 30 percent of the overall population) can serve as an example: the use of their language has declined over the years due to, among others, these factors: a lack of qualified teachers and up-to-date textbooks, and crucially, lack of interest among students in studying their own mother tongue. Furthermore, the number of hours devoted to the study of Avar in schools, especially in rural areas, has been reduced. While in the first four grades all subjects are taught in Avar, from the fifth grade there is increasing number of hours spent on studying in Russian. (From the fifth to ninth grade – all instruction is in Russian except two hours a week devoted to the Avar language and two more to Avar literature. In the 10^th and 11^th grades, only two hours per week are designated to the Avar language.)

The cuts into the use of minority languages in broadcasting are also evident in Dagestan. Republican television now broadcasts exclusively in Russian, although there are still daily radio programs in the 13 other titular languages. However, the number of hours broadcast is directly proportional to the number of speakers of a given language, with Avar and Dargin having the most and Tsakhur the least.

The published summary of roundtable discussion in Makhachkala did not give any indication whether participants came to the conclusion that some languages are in greater danger of becoming obsolescent than others, and if so, which.

The participants said much of the blame for the decline of indigenous languages in Dagestan lies with the Education Ministry. They characterized many of the ministry's staff members as having no relevant expertise and implied they were indifferent to the issue of teaching small languages.

They contrasted the situation in Dagestan, where high-school students spend a maximum of four hours per week studying their native language, literature, and history, with that in Kabardino-Balkaria, where the comparable figure is 36 hours.

The roundtable participants appealed to President Aliyev to take urgent measures to reverse the decline in the use of small languages. They all agreed that even if the republic's leadership could secure funds for programs to promote the study of Avar and other state languages, it could take years before such programs yielded the desired effect.

Source: The Journal of Turkish Weekly, August 21, 2007 http://www.turkishweekly.net/news.php?id=47684 

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Updated (July 2008)

MATHEMATICS ONLY TO BE TAUGHT IN THE CHECHEN LANGUAGE

Education Minister Anzor Muzayev has announced that schools will start teaching mathematics in the Chechen language from the first grade. Surprisingly, no changes in other subjects were announced.

This move, which will make Chechnya the first area of Russia to teach a major subject in public schools in language other than Russian, has just followed the recent calls of President Kadyrov to broaden the use of the Chechen language in the field of education.

The move has however been criticized by schoolteachers and parents in Chechnya who say that this transition could hurt the quality of education and make it more difficult for the Chechen children to adapt in other Russian provinces. Another reason why they do not agree with this move is that the Chechen language lacks mathematical terms.

Source: The Moscow Times, News, July 3, 2008 http://www.themoscowtimes.com/article/1010/42/368706.htm

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