U.S. English Foundation Research

SPAIN

Language Research

2. Background: Background notes

Spain's powerful world empire of the 16th and 17th centuries ultimately yielded command of the seas to England. Subsequent failure to embrace the mercantile and industrial revolutions caused the country to fall behind Britain, France, and Germany in economic and political power. Spain remained neutral in World Wars I and II, but suffered through a devastating Civil War (1936-39). In the second half of the 20th century, it has played a catch-up role in the western international community. Continuing concerns are large-scale unemployment and the Basque separatist movement.

The Spanish people are essentially a mixture of the indigenous peoples of the Iberian Peninsula with the successive peoples who conquered the peninsula and occupied it for extended periods. These added ethnologic elements include the Romans, a Mediterranean people, and the Suevi, Vandals, Visigoths (Goths), and Teutonic peoples. Semitic elements are also present. The populations of several regions in Spain have kept a separate identity, culturally and linguistically. These include the Basques, who number about 2.1 million and live chiefly around the Bay of Biscay; the Galicians (about 2.5 million), who live in northwestern Spain; and the Catalans of eastern and northeastern Spain. The nomadic Spanish Gypsies, who are also called Gitanos, are also a separate ethnic group.

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Updated (November 2002)

CATALAN

Catalan belongs to the Indo-European (Romance) languages and it is spoken in four autonomous communities in Spain (Catalonia, the Balearic Islands, Valencia and also a part of Aragón).

From the 11th to the 17th Century, Catalan enjoyed an official status and orders and decrees were published in this language. However, in the 18th Century, King Philip V, in an attempt to erase the national character of Catalonia, introduced Spanish into all Catalan-speaking regions. In the 20th Century, there were further efforts to eradicate Catalan, the most severe of which occurred after the Spanish Civil War, when Franco dictatorship not only abolished the official status of Catalan, but also completely forbade its use in the public.

Immigration of Spanish-speaking workers attracted by the Catalan industry, also contributed to the loss of Catalan. The revival of Catalan only started after Franco's death, in 1975.

Source: Mercator Education, Regional Dossiers, The Catalan Language in education in Spain,

http://www1.fa.knaw.nl/mercator/regionale_dossiers/regional_dossier_catalan_in_spain.htm

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Updated (August 2003)

THE FRANCO ERA AND ITS MINORITY POLICIES (1939-1975)

Just after the conquest of both the Basque Country and Catalonia (Basque Country in 1938, Catalonia in 1939) brutal and systematic repression of the Basques and the Catalans began. In both regions, hundreds of people were executed and thousands were put into prison. About 150,000 Basques and 250,000 Catalans left Spain and fled to France.

Political and cultural organisations of the minorities were forbidden. In public administration, Basque and Catalan civil servants were replaced by Castilian-speaking civil servants from other parts of Spain. The symbols and monuments of these two minorities as well as publications in Basque and Catalan were destroyed and banned. Names of streets were changed into the Castilian ones. The use of Catalan and Basque in public was punished and the regional languages and cultures were removed from the education system. Moreover, Castilian-speaking teachers were transferred to the Basque Country and Catalonia so children were educated in Castilian only. The Basque and Catalan languages were reduced to a merely informal, oral use.

This policy of oppression in the political, cultural, administrative and linguistic sector was combined with an economic exploitation of both regions. Since the Basque Country and Catalonia were the richest regions within Spain, Franco tried to limit their economic influence. Both regions had to pay large amounts of money (in a form of special taxes) to foster economic development in other regions of Spain. Furthermore, a large-scale immigration movement from southern Spain was used by the Franco regime to demographically overlay the regional minorities. As a result, 73 percent of the population of both Catalonia and the Basque Country were born elsewhere in Spain by the late 1970s.

Franco's policy towards the minorities was an example of a policy of repression based on ethnic dominance. This policy was certainly also aimed at creating a uniform and homogeneous Spanish nation. In 1959, the organisation “Euskadi ta Askatasuna“ (ETA, Basque Fatherland and Liberty) was founded, fighting for an independent Basque Country. In Catalonia, the resistance focused on the defence of the regional language and culture.

Only with Franco's death in 1975, began the period of so-called “Transición“ (transition) from an authoritarian regime to a democratic system. For the minorities in Spain it was the starting point for a new era in the relationship between majority and minority.

AUTONOMY

Full autonomy should be confined to three historic nationalities (nacionalidades históricas) the Basques, the Catalans and the Galicians. The statutes of autonomy for Catalonia, the Basque Country (excluding Navarre) and Galicia were negotiated and adopted by referendum. Besides these regions, Valencia, the Balearic Islands and the Canary Islands also demanded the Statute of Autonomy. Finally, in 1983, Spain was completely subdivided into seventeen autonomous communities (the so-called Comunidades Autónomas) as a result of the process of decentralisation. The Basque Country, Catalonia and Galicia got the highest level of autonomy because of their special status as “historic nationalities.“

The 1978 Constitution is the first in Spanish history to declare the existence of a multinational state in its Article 2, Tit. VIII:

The Constitution is founded on the indissoluble unity of the Spanish nation, common and indivisible motherland of all Spaniards, and recognizes and guarantees the right to autonomy of all the nationalities and regions, which comprise it and the solidarity among them all.

The attitude of the Spanish state towards its minorities changed significantly with the process of democratisation. They were seen as an elementary part of Spain and no longer as a disturbing factor. However, regional autonomy only partly succeeded in accommodating the Basques, the Catalans and the Galicians to a stable constitutional and democratic order. Especially in the Basque Country, the separatist movement led by ETA keeps its power and influence, although the majority of the population does not want separation from Spain.

The greatest challenge faced by the young Spanish democracy was to develop a policy which would reconcile the state with regional demands of the Basques, Catalans and Galicians. Their languages have been recognised as co-official with Castilian in the three regions, strengthening regional identities and pushing forward a cultural and linguistic revival. Nonetheless, Castilian is still fixed as the dominant language in the Constitution and it is an instrument of political dominance.

While Catalonia got its regional autonomy in 1932, the Basque Country had to wait until October 1936, when the republican government in Madrid conceded a Statute of Autonomy to the Basques. The purpose of this concession was an attempt to get the Basques on the republican side in the Spanish Civil War.

THE BASQUES

HISTORY

The Basques surely were the minority which was the most strongly exposed to the repression of the Franco regime. Since the 18th Century, Euskera was constantly replaced by Spanish and French in the originally Basque-speaking areas. It was forbidden to speak it in the public with the threat of severe penalties.

During the Franco-era, the so-called “Ikastolak“ (learning workshops) played an important role in defending Euskera against extinguishment. In these Ikastolak, which were founded and financed by private initiatives, Euskera was taught and Basque culture was promoted. However, with the regulations of the Statute of Autonomy, the Ikastolak lost some of their influence. Still, without their efforts, Euskera certainly would have lost the majority of its speakers during the Franco-era.

Today, only the province of Guipúzcoa is predominantly Basque speaking, while in Álava and Navarre Euskera is only used in the most northern parts.¹ Nonetheless, Euskera has steadily lost ground in Navarre and may further diminish if no adequate measures will be taken.

LANGUAGE AND CULTURE

Language and culture form the basis of Basque ethnic identity and the ideology of Basque nationalism. The protection of language and culture is, therefore, very important for the Basques and their status.

For this reason, education and culture fall under the jurisdiction of the Autonomous Community, so that defence and promotion of the Basque language and culture is in hands of the regional government. The Basque language (Euskera) is the only pre-Indo-European language still spoken in Europe. Euskera has survived to the present day, although it was exposed to the Romance languages (Latin, Spanish and French) for more than 2000 years and had no strong tradition as a written language.

Euskera survived due to the historic, geographic and socio-economic peculiarities of the Basque Country and strong and exclusive ethno cultural identity of the Basque community. The Christianisation of the Basque Country and the Latin language came relatively late, and the great linguistic differences between Euskera and its neighbouring languages also played an important role. Euskera is not related to any other known language so it is quite difficult to learn it. This fact caused great problems regarding the integration of Spanish-speaking immigrants.

Only about a quarter of 2.1 million inhabitants of the Basque Autonomous Community can speak, read and write Euskera (these people are called “Euskaldunak“). One fifth uses Euskera as its everyday communication language.

Currently, approximately 535,000 people in the Basque Country and Navarre use Euskera as their primary language, while about 450,000 people use it as their secondary language. Euskera has a co-official status together with Spanish in the Basque Autonomous Community according to Article 6 of the Basque Statute of Autonomy. Both languages are granted equality in the Basque Autonomous Community.

EDUCATION

The most important measure in this context was the establishment of bilingualism in primary school education in 1983. Since the introduction of the central, state-run school system in 1857, Basque has never been taught effectively in schools, so that Spanish was the only language of education until the end of the Franco regime. There are four different models of minority language teaching in the Basque Autonomous Community:

• Model A uses Spanish as the main language in which courses are held, while Euskera is taught as a regular subject.

• Model B is based on a bilingual approach, so that Spanish and Euskera are used equally. One half of the subjects is taught in Euskera and the other half in Spanish.

• Model C uses Spanish as the only language. This model is no longer significant in the Basque Country's school system.

• Model D uses Euskera as the general language, while Spanish is taught as a regular subject.

Model B is dominant, while in the predominantly Basque-speaking province of Guipúzcoa the majority of the pupils are taught according to Model D.

However, adults also have a chance to learn Basque in the so-called “Euskaltegiak“, which are adult education institutions. Since the basic knowledge of Euskera is required for most jobs in administration, the Euskaltegiak have gained more importance, partly replacing the Ikastolak learning workshops.

LEGISLATION

In general, the language policy of the Basque Autonomous Community is characterised by ambitious efforts to protect and promote Euskera in many ways. The survival of Euskera is, to some extent, also the result of the new policies of the Spanish state. Its acceptance as the Spanish minority language and its co-official status in the Basque Autonomous Community has changed significantly the general attitudes towards the language in the last decades. Before that, Euskera had the pejorative reputation of a rural and backward language.

The powers of the Basque Autonomous Community are expressed in Article 149.1 of the 1978 Constitution and in the 1979 Basque Statute of Autonomy, while the powers explicitly reserved to the central state are laid down in Article 149 of the Spanish Constitution. The distribution of powers between the central state and the Basque Autonomous Community was heavily disputed during the negotiation of the Basque Statute of Autonomy. At the end, the Basques were recognised explicitly “as a historic nationality with the right to self-government.”

Euskera has a co-official status on the regional level and its protection, promotion and distribution is provided in many ways. Due to their historical experiences, the Basques were granted the permission to build up their own police force, the Ertzaintza, with more than 7,000 officers. The flag (Ikurriña) and the anthem (Eusko Abendaren Ereserkia) became the official symbols of the Autonomous Community according to Article 5 of the Statute of Autonomy and a law passed by the Basque Parliament on April 14, 1983.

THE CATALANS

The Catalan-speaking population in Spain is dispersed over four Autonomous Communities: Aragón (La Franja), the Balearic Islands, Catalonia and Valencia. Catalan in its different variations is spoken in the area of about 68,000 km² by more than 8 million people, forming the biggest “minority“ in Europe without its own state (leaving apart Andorra).

The Balearic Islands and Valencia have developed their own regional identity for different reasons. Linguistically and culturally, the term “Països Catalans“ (Catalan Countries) is often used only for three Autonomous Communities, while the term “Catalonia“ refers to the Autonomous Community of Cataluña (Catalunya in Catalan). About 75 percent of the Catalans in Spain live in this region.

• The Autonomous Community of Catalonia (31,932 km²) has 6.4 million inhabitants and is formed by four provinces: Barcelona, Gerona (Girona), Lérida (Lleida) and Tarragona. Its capital is Barcelona.

• The Balearic Islands with the main islands of Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza (Eivissa) and Formentera constitute their own Autonomous Community (4,935 km², 650,000 inhabitants) with its capital Palma de Mallorca.

• Three provinces (Alicante (Alicant), Castellón (Castellò) and Valencia) form the Autonomous Community of Valencia (23,260 km², 3.6 million inhabitants) with the capital of Valencia.

HISTORY

Linguistically, Catalan derived from Latin and it belongs to the group of western neo-Latin languages together with Spanish, Portuguese or French. Catalan is closely related to the Occitan (Provençal) language spoken in the southern parts of France.

The first written texts in Catalan appeared in the 12th Century. During the 13th and 14th Century, the Catalan language spread around the Mediterranean area because of the political and economic expansion of the Catalans. The language was then spoken in the eastern parts of the Iberian Peninsula, the Balearic Islands, on Sicily and Sardinia and in parts of southern Italy. In the late 14th Century, with the works of the Catalan writer Bernat Metge, the so-called “Golden Age“ of Catalan literature began. However, Catalan was also used as the language of administration and trade until the early 18th Century.

After the Spanish War of Succession and along with the program designed by Phillip V, Catalan lost its status as an administrative and educational language and it was steadily replaced by Spanish in public affairs. Soon it was restrained only to the private and oral communication.

In the 19th Century, the cultural and linguistic movement of the Renaixença led to a revival of the Catalan language and culture especially in literature, thereby providing the basis for Catalan nationalism.

The lack of unity in the use of the written language initiated its codification. In 1907, the Institute for Catalan Studies was founded to reach this aim. In the following decade, the works of the Catalan linguist Pompeu Fabra resulted in the orthographical, grammatical and lexicographical standardisation of Catalan.

During the Second Spanish Republic and especially since the Catalan Statute of Autonomy in 1932, Catalan regained its status as an official language. After Franco's victory in the Spanish Civil War, a policy of repression against the Catalan language was introduced. It was strictly forbidden to speak Catalan in the public, so that Catalan was reduced to an oral, informal medium of communication.

During the Franco era, the use of Catalan was the centre point of conflict between the regime and the Catalans. The policy of “Castilianisation“ caused persistent and widespread civic resistance in Catalonia. Nonetheless, due to private organisations and activities by intellectuals, musicians and literates, Catalan survived on a broad basis, but merely as a spoken language in the private sphere. Since the end of the Franco dictatorship in 1975, the Catalan language has experienced a strong revival in any regard. The number of speakers has significantly risen in Catalonia due to the measures taken by the Catalan Autonomous Community.

LANGUAGE AND CULTURE

Education as well as cultural and linguistic affairs fall under the jurisdiction of the Catalan Autonomous Community.

In the 1970s, the Catalan language faced a significant upturn in many regards, but especially in the sectors of the official use (e.g. in the administration, education, culture and mass media).

In 1976, the appearance of the first daily newspaper published in Catalan, “Avui“ (Today), was an important step concerning the use of Catalan in the mass media. With the publishing of the newspaper “El Periódico“ in Catalan, starting in October 1997, the Catalan press experienced a new upswing. However, the leading newspaper in Catalonia, Barcelona's “La Vanguardia,“ is still published in Spanish only. Nonetheless, the great variety of newspapers and magazines in Catalan provide a broad basis for the promotion of the language, also on the Balearic Islands and in Valencia.

Beside the press, both radio and television play an important role in promoting Catalan. Regional radio stations, and especially those owned by the Generalitat, like “Catalunya Radio“ (set up in 1983) or “Catalunya Informació“ (started in 1992) use Catalan as their main transmission language.

The heavily disputed Law on Linguistic Policy that came into effect on January 7, 1998, laid down that 25 percent of the songs played on the radio have to be in Catalan. This and similar regulations concerning the mass media caused vehement reactions in the Spanish government as well as in the Spanish press. The regional television, belonging to the Catalan Radio and Television Corporation, has two channels (TV 3, set up in 1983 and Canal 33, set up in 1988), which broadcast exclusively in Catalan. Furthermore, the national television channel “Televisión Española 2“ also offers some Catalan programs.

Catalan is a compulsory subject in all schools, while Spanish is merely taught as a foreign language, similar to English or French. In most schools the courses are held in Catalan only. At university level, Catalan is the dominant language too.

Its dominance, especially in schools, is a problem in many regards. The majority of the Spanish-speaking immigrants are either willing or simply forced to learn it. At least, Catalan is easier to learn for Spaniards than Euskera. Nonetheless, the preference for Catalan in schools instead of Spanish may have negative implications on future perspectives for younger Catalans.

AUTONOMY

All three Autonomous Communities enjoy a linguistically, culturally, historically and politically special status. After the referendum in October 1979 when 88.2 percent of the voting population were in favour of autonomy, Catalonia got its Statute of Autonomy in December 1979 (Ley Orgánica 4, passed on December 18, 1979). The Balearic Islands and Valencia were granted the Statute of Autonomy according to Article 143 of the Spanish Constitution in February 1983 (Ley Orgánica 2, passed on February 25, 1983) and in July 1982 (Ley Orgánica 5, passed on July 1, 1982), respectively. On the basis of the Ley Orgánica 12, passed on August 10, 1982, Valencia was guaranteed a higher level of autonomy according to Article 151 of the Spanish Constitution.

In the 1978 Spanish Constitution, the Catalans were recognised as one of Spain's historic nationalities.

THE GALICIANS

Galicia is situated in the northwest of Spain. It has 29,434 km² and 2,730,337 inhabitants (El País, May 28, 2001). The Galicians are one of Spain's “historic nationalities,“ with their own distinctive language (Galego) and culture. The Autonomous Community of Galicia consists of four provinces: La Coruña (A Coruña), Lugo, Orense (Ourense) and Pontevedra, and its capital is Santiago de Compostela.

AUTONOMY

In a referendum from December 1980, 73 percent of the participants were in favour of autonomy. Galicia got its Statute of Autonomy according to the Ley Orgánica 1, passed on April 6, 1981, in accordance with Article 151 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 and its transitional disposition No. 2.

The situation of the Galicians has slightly improved in the last two decades. The acceptance of the Galicians as a historic nationality and their special status as well as the acceptance of Spain's multinational character has grown among the Castilian majority.

Source: CIFEM, Villach-Ossiach, Minority Policies in Spain, Historical Development, Characteristics and Current Situation, by Franz Valandro, Villach, September 2001, http://www.cifem.at/projekte/Spanien.htm

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